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Jorge Luis Borges
| birthplace = Buenos Aires, Argentina | deathdate = June | deathplace = Geneva, Switzerland | occupation = Writer, poet, critic, librarian | influences = Schopenhauer, G.K. Chesterton, Stevenson, De Quincey, Kipling, Cervantes, Gustav Meyrink, Swift, Kafka, H.P. Lovecraft, Herman Melville, Oscar Wilde, Walt Whitman, William Wordsworth, Hugo, Paul ValÃ©ry, Poe, Swedenborg, Plato, Virgil, Shakespeare, Heraclitus, H.G. Wells, De Quevedo, Euclides da Cunha, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Macedonio FernÃ¡ndez, One Thousand and One Nights, Casares, Rafael Cansinos-Assens, William Blake | influenced = CÃ©sar Aira, Paul Auster, Paulo Coelho, Jean Baudrillard, Adolfo Bioy Casares, Roberto BolaÃ±o, Giannina Braschi, Italo Calvino, Julio CortÃ¡zar, Philip K. Dick, Umberto Eco, Michel Foucault, Carlos Fuentes, Danilo Kis, StanisÅ‚aw Lem, Orhan Pamuk, Georges Perec, Thomas Pynchon, W. G. Sebald, Enrique Vila-Matas, Gene Wolfe, William Gibson, Mark Z. Danielewski}} Jorge Francisco Isidoro Luis Borges Acevedo (August 24, 1899 - June 14, 1986), best known as Jorge Luis Borges ( ), was an Argentine writer, essayist, and poet. Life Overview Borges was born in Buenos Aires. In 1914 his family moved to Switzerland where he attended school and traveled to Spain. On his return to Argentina in 1921, Borges began publishing his poems and essays in surrealist literary journals. He also worked as a librarian and public lecturer. In 1955 he was appointed director of the National Public Library (Biblioteca Nacional) and professor of Literature at the University of Buenos Aires. In 1961 he came to international attention when he received the first International Publishers' Prize, the Prix Formentor. His work was translated and published widely in the United States and in Europe. Borges himself was fluent in several languages. He died in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1986. His work embraces the "chaos that rules the world and the character of unreality in all literature."Jozef, Bella. "Borges: linguagem e metalinguagem". In: O espaÃ§o reconquistado. PetrÃ³polis, RJ: Vozes, 1974, p.43. His most famous books, Ficciones (1944) and The Aleph (1949), are compilations of short stories interconnected by common themes such as dreams, labyrinths, libraries, fictional writers, religion and God. His works have contributed to the genre of magical realism, a genre that reacted against the realism/naturalism of the nineteenth century. Masina, Lea. (2001) "Murilo RubiÃ£o, o mÃ¡gico do conto". In: O pirotÃ©cnico Zacarias e outros contos escolhidos. Porto Alegre: L & PM, p5. __, "O maravilhoso no Novo Mundo: ecologia e discurso", (1992) Ecologia e discurso. Rio de Janeiro, Tempo Brasileiro p. 115-129.Theo L. D'Haen (1995) "Magical Realism and Postmodernism: Descentering Priviledged Centers", in: Louis P. Zamora and Wendy B. Faris, Magical Realism: Theory, History and Community. Duhan and London, Duke University Press p. 191-208. In fact, critic Angel Flores, the earliest to use the term, set the beginning of this movement with Borges's Historia universal de la infamia (1935).On his conference "Magical Realism in Spanish American" (Nova York, MLA, 1954), published later in Hispania, 38 (2), 1955. However, some critics would consider Borges to be a predecessor and not actually a magical realist. Scholars also have suggested that Borges's progressive blindness helped him to create innovative literary symbols through imagination.In short, Borges's blindness led him to favour poetry and shorter narratives over novels. Ferriera, Eliane Fernanda C. "O (In) visÃvel imaginado em Borges". In: Pedro Pires Bessa (ed.). Riqueza Cultural Ibero-Americana. Campus de DivinÃ³polis-UEMG, 1996, p. 313-314. His late poems dialogue with such cultural figures as Spinoza, CamÃµes, and Virgil. His international fame was consolidated in the 1960s, aided by the "Latin American Boom" and the success of Gabriel GarcÃa MÃ¡rquez's Cien AÃ±os de Soledad (One Hundred Years of Solitude). Writer and essayist J. M. Coetzee said of him: "He, more than anyone, renovated the language of fiction and thus opened the way to a remarkable generation of Spanish American novelists."Coetzee, J.M. "Borges's Dark Mirror", New York Review of Books, Volume 45, Number 16 Â· October 22, 1998 Youth and education Jorge Luis Borges was born to an educated middle-class family. They were in comfortable circumstances, but were not wealthy enough to live in downtown Buenos Aires, they resided in Palermo, then a poorer suburb of the city. Borges's mother, Leonor Acevedo SuÃ¡rez, came from a traditional Uruguayan family of "pure" criollo, (Spanish) descent. Her family had been much involved in the European settling of South America and she spoke often of their heroic actions. Borges's 1929 book Cuaderno San MartÃn includes the poem "Isidoro Acevedo," commemorating his grandfather, Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida, a soldier of the Buenos Aires Army. A descendant of the Argentine lawyer and politician Francisco Narciso de Laprida, Acevedo fought in the battles of Cepeda in 1859, PavÃ³n in 1861, and Los Corrales in 1880. Isidoro de Acevedo Laprida died of pulmonary congestion in the house where his grandson Jorge Luis Borges was born. Borges grew up hearing about the faded family glory. On the other side, Borges's father, Jorge Guillermo Borges Haslam, was part Spanish, part Portuguese, and half English, also the son of a colonel. Haslam, whose mother was English, grew up speaking English at home, and took his own family frequently to Europe. England and English pervaded the family home. At nine Jorge Luis Borges translated The Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde to Spanish and it was published in a local journal, but his friends thought the real author was his father.Harold Bloom (2004) Jorge Luis Borges (Bloom's biocritiques) Infobase Publishing ISBN 0791078728 Borges Haslam was a lawyer and psychology teacher who harboured literary aspirations. Borges said his father "tried to become a writer and failed in the attempt." He wrote, "as most of my people had been soldiers and I knew I would never be, I felt ashamed, quite early, to be a bookish kind of person and not a man of action." Borges was taught at home until the age of 11, bilingual, reading Shakespeare in English at the age of twelve. The family lived in a large house with an English library of over one thousand volumes; Borges would later remark that "if I were asked to name the chief event in my life, I should say my father's library."Borges, Jorge Luis, "Autobiographical Notes", The New Yorker, 19 September 1970. His father gave up practicing law due to the failing eyesight that would eventually afflict his son. In 1914 the family moved to Geneva, Switzerland and spent the next decade in Europe. Borges Haslam was treated by a Geneva eye specialist, while his son and daughter Norah attended school, where Borges junior learned French. He read Carlyle in English, and began to read philosophy in German. In 1917, when he was 18, he met Maurice Abramowicz and began a literary friendship that would last the rest of his life. He received his baccalaurÃ©at from the CollÃ¨ge de GenÃ¨ve in 1918. The Borges family decided that, due to political unrest in Argentina, they would remain in Switzerland during the war, staying until 1921. After World War I, the family spent three years living in various cities: Lugano, Barcelona, Majorca, Seville, and Madrid. At that time Borges discovered the writing of Arthur Schopenhauer and Gustav Meyrink's The Golem (1915) which became influential to his work. In Spain, Borges fell in with and became a member of the avant-garde, anti-Modernist Ultraist literary movement, inspired by Apollinaire and Marinetti, close to the Imagists. His first poem, "Hymn to the Sea," written in the style of Walt Whitman, was published in the magazine Grecia. While in Spain, he met noted Spanish writers, including Rafael Cansinos Assens and RamÃ³n GÃ³mez de la Serna. Early writing career In 1921, Borges returned with his family to Buenos Aires. He had little formal education, no qualifications and few friends. He wrote to a friend that Buenos Aires was now "overrun by arrivistes, by correct youths lacking any mental equipment, and decorative young ladies". He brought with him the doctrine of Ultraism and launched his career, publishing surreal poems and essays in literary journals. In 1930, Nestor Ibarra called Borges the "Great Apostle of Criollismo," celebrating Latin American regionalism.Borges Center, University of Pittsburg. Accessed 2010-08-16 Borges published his first published collection of poetry, Fervor de Buenos Aires in 1923 and contributed to the avant-garde review MartÃn Fierro. Borges co-founded the journals Prisma, a broadsheet distributed largely by pasting copies to walls in Buenos Aires, and Proa. Later in life, Borges regretted some of these early publications, and attempted to purchase all known copies to ensure their destruction.[http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exboroth.html Borges: Other Inquisitions 1937-1952. Full introduction by James Irby. University of Texas ISBN 9780292760028 ] Accessed 2010-08-16 By the mid-1930s, he began to explore existential questions and fiction. He worked in a style that Ana MarÃa Barrenechea has called "irreality." Many other Latin American writers, such as Juan Rulfo, Juan JosÃ© Arreola, and Alejo Carpentier, were also investigating these themes, influenced by the phenomenology of Husserl and Heidegger and the existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre. In this vein, his biographer Williamson underlines how careful readers must be not to infer a biographical basis for Borges's work as books, philosophy and imagination were as much a source of real inspiration to him as personal experience, if not more so. From the first issue, Borges was a regular contributor to Sur (South), founded in 1931 by Victoria Ocampo. It was then Argentina's most important literary journal and helped Borges find his fame.Ivonne Bordelois, "The Sur Magazine" Villa Ocampo Website Ocampo introduced Borges to Adolfo Bioy Casares, another well-known figure of Argentine literature, who was to become a frequent collaborator and close friend. Together they wrote a number of works, some under the nom de plume H. Bustos Domecq, including a parody detective series and fantasy stories. During these years a family friend Macedonio FernÃ¡ndez became a major influence on Borges. The two would preside over discussions in cafÃ©s, country retreats, or FernÃ¡ndez' tiny apartment in the Balvanera district. In 1933, Borges gained an editorial appointment at the literary supplement of the newspaper CrÃtica, where he first published the pieces later collected as the Historia universal de la infamia (A Universal History of Infamy, 1936). The book included two types of writing. The first lay somewhere between non-fictional essays and short stories, using fictional techniques to tell essentially true stories. The second consisted of literary forgeries, which Borges initially passed off as translations of passages from famous but seldom-read works. In the following years, he served as a literary adviser for the publishing house EmecÃ© Editores and wrote weekly columns for El Hogar, which appeared from 1936 to 1939. In 1938, Borges found work as first assistant at the Buenos Aires Municipal Library in Miguel CanÃ©, a working class area. There were so few books, that cataloguing more than one hundred books per day, he was told, would leave little to do for the other staff and so look bad. The task took him about an hour each day and the rest of his time he spent in the basement of the library, writing articles, short stories and translations. Later career Borges's father died in 1938, a tragedy for the writer, as father and son were very close. On Christmas Eve that year, Borges suffered a severe head wound; during treatment, he nearly died of septicemia. While recovering from the accident, Borges began playing with a new style of writing, for which he would become famous. His first story written after his accident, "[[Pierre Menard, Author of The Quixote|Pierre Menard, Author of The Quixote]]" came in May 1939, examining the father-son relationship and the nature of authorship. His first collection of short stories, El jardÃn de senderos que se bifurcan (The Garden of Forking Paths), appeared in 1941, composed mostly of works previously published in Sur. The title story concerns a Chinese professor in England, Dr. Yu Tsun, who spies for Germany during World War I, in an attempt to prove to the authorities that an Asian person is able to obtain the information that they seek. A combination of book and maze, it can be read in many ways. Through it, Borges arguably invented the hypertext novel and went on to describe a theory of the universe based upon the structure of such a novel. Eight stories over sixty pages, the book was generally well received, but El jardÃn de senderos que se bifurcan failed to garner for him the literary prizes many in his circle expected. Wardrip-Fruin, Noah & Montfort, Nick (2003). The New Media Reader. MIT Press. Victoria Ocampo dedicated a large portion of the July 1941 issue of Sur to a "Reparation for Borges." Numerous leading writers and critics from Argentina and throughout the Spanish-speaking world contributed writings to the "reparation" project. With his vision beginning to fade in his early thirties and unable to support himself as a writer, Borges began a new career as a public lecturer. "His was a particular kind of blindness, grown on him gradually since the age of thirty and settled in for good after his fifty-eighth birthday." From , Alberto Manguel (2006) With Borges, London:Telegram Books p 15-16., Alberto Manguel (2006) With Borges, London:Telegram Books p 15-16.Woodall, J: The Man in Mirror of the Book, A Life of Luis Borges, (1996) Hodder and Stoughton pxxx. Borges became an increasingly public figure, obtaining appointments as President of the Argentine Society of Writers, and as Professor of English and American Literature at the Argentine Association of English Culture. His short story "Emma Zunz" was made into a film (under the name of DÃas de odio (Days of Hate), directed in 1954 by the Argentine director Leopoldo Torre Nilsson). Around this time, Borges also began writing screenplays. By the late -1950s, he had become completely blind, as had one of his best known predecessors, Paul Groussac, for whom Borges wrote an obituary. Neither the coincidence nor the irony of his blindness as a writer escaped Borges: :Nadie rebaje a lÃ¡grima o reproche :esta declaraciÃ³n de la maestrÃa :de Dios, que con magnÃfica ironÃa :me dio a la vez los libros y la noche. :Let neither tear nor reproach besmirch :this declaration of the mastery :of God who, with magnificent irony, :granted me both the gift of books and the night. The following year Borges was awarded the National Prize for Literature from the University of Cuyo, and the first of many honorary doctorates. From 1956 to 1970, Borges also held a position as a professor of literature at the University of Buenos Aires, while frequently holding temporary appointments at other universities. As his eyesight deteriorated, Borges relied increasingly on his mother's help. When he was not able to read and write anymore (he never learned to read Braille), his mother, to whom he had always been close, became his personal secretary. When PerÃ³n returned from exile and was re-elected president in 1973, Borges immediately resigned as director of the National Library. International renown Eight of Borges's poems appear in the 1943 anthology of Spanish American Poets by H. R. Hays.H. R. Hays, ed. (1943) 12 Spanish American Poets. New Haven: Yale University Press p118-139. The Borges poems in H. R. Hays, ed. (1943) 12 Spanish American Poets are "A Patio," "Butcher Shop," "Benares," "The Recoleta," "A Day's Run," "General Quiroga Rides to Death in a Carriage," "July Avenue," and "Natural Flow of Memory." "The Garden of Forking Paths", one of the first Borges stories to be translated into English, appeared in the August 1948 issue of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, translated by Anthony Boucher.Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections. Though several other Borges translations appeared in literary magazines and anthologies during the 1950s, his international fame dates from the early 1960s.Borges, Jorge Luis (1998) Collected Fictions Viking Penguin. Translation and notes by Andrew Hurley. Editorial note p 517. In 1961 he received the first International Publishers' Prize, the Prix Formentor, which he shared with Samuel Beckett. While Beckett had garnered a distinguished reputation in Europe and America, Borges was still largely unknown and untranslated in the English-speaking world and the prize stirred interest in his work. The Italian government named Borges Commendatore and the University of Texas at Austin appointed him for one year to the Tinker Chair. This led to his first lecture tour in the United States. In 1962 two major anthologies of Borges's writings were published in English by New York presses: Ficciones and Labyrinths. In that year, Borges began lecture tours of Europe. In 1980 he was awarded the Balzan Prize (for Philology, Linguistics and literary Criticism) and the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca; numerous other honors were to accumulate over the years, such as the French Legion of Honour in 1983, the Cervantes Prize, and a Special Edgar Allan Poe Award from the Mystery Writers of America, "for distinguished contribution to the mystery genre".Mystery Writers of America. Edgar Award Database. Retrieved 24 September 2007. In 1967, Borges began a five-year period of collaboration with the American translator Norman Thomas di Giovanni, through whom he became better known in the English-speaking world. He also continued to publish books, among them El libro de los seres imaginarios (The Book of Imaginary Beings, (1967, co-written with Margarita Guerrero), El informe de Brodie (Dr. Brodie's Report, 1970), and El libro de arena (The Book of Sand, 1975). He also lectured prolifically. Many of these lectures were anthologized in volumes such as Siete noches (Seven Nights) and Nueve ensayos dantescos (Nine Dantesque Essays). Later personal life in Buenos Aires, 1975.]] In 1967 Borges married the recently widowed Elsa Astete Millain. Friends believed that his mother, who was 90 and anticipating her own death, wanted to find someone to care for her blind son. The marriage lasted less than three years. After a legal separation, Borges moved back in with his mother, with whom he lived until her death at age 99.Norman Thomas Di Giovanni, The Lessons of the Master Thereafter, he lived alone in the small flat he had shared with her, cared for by Fanny, their housekeeper of many decades."Fanny", El SeÃ±or Borges From 1975 until the time of his death, Borges traveled internationally. He was often accompanied in these travels by his personal assistant Maria Kodama, an Argentine woman of Japanese and German ancestry. In April 1986, a few months before his death, he married her via an attorney in Paraguay]]. Jorge Luis Borges died of liver cancer]] in 1986 in Geneva and was buried there in the Cimetiere des Rois. After years of legal wrangling about the legality of the marriage, Kodama, as sole inheritor of a significant annual income, gained control over his works. Her administration of his estate was denounced by the French publisher Gallimard, by Le Nouvel Observateur, and by intellectuals such as Beatriz Sarlo, as an obstacle to the serious reading of Borges's works. Octavi MartÃ, Kodama frente a Borges, El PaÃis (Madrid), Edicion Impresa, 16 August 2006. Abstract online; full text accessible online by subscription only. Under Kodama, the Borges estate rescinded all publishing rights for existing collections of his work in English, including the translations by Norman Thomas di Giovanni, in which Borges himself cooperated, and from which di Giovanni received fifty percent of the royalties. The estate commissioned new translations by Andrew Hurley.[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/12/1057783281684.html Richard Flanagan, "Writing with Borges", The Age (Australia), 12 July 2003.] Accessed 2010-08-16 Political opinions Anti-Communism In an interview with Richard Burgin during the late 1960s, Borges stated that his opposition to Marxism and Communism was absorbed in his childhood. "Well, I have been brought up to think that the individual should be strong and the State should be weak. I couldn't be enthusiastic about theories where the State is more important than the individual."Burgin (1968). P104. After the overthrow by a military coup of the democratically elected second term of Peron in 1955, Borges supported efforts to purge Argentina's Government of Peronists and dismantle the former President's welfare state. He was enraged that the Communist Party of Argentina opposed these measures and sharply criticized them in lectures and in print. Borges' opposition to the Party in this matter ultimately led to a permanent rift with his longtime lover, Argentine Communist Estella Canto. Edwin Williamson, Borges: A Life, pages 332-333. In later years, Borges frequently expressed contempt for Communists within the Latin American intelligentsia. In an interview with Burgin, Borges referred to Chilean Pablo Neruda as "a very fine poet," but a "very mean man" for unconditionally supporting the Soviet Union and demonizing the United States.Burgin (1968) p95-6 During the 1970s, Borges' expressed support for Argentina's military junta, but was scandalized by the mass killings of suspected Communists during the Dirty War. Opposition to Peronism When President Juan Domingo PerÃ³n began transforming Argentina into a populist regime, in 1946, with the assistance of his wife Evita, the spoils system was the rule of the day, as ideological critics of the new order were dismissed from government jobs. During this period, Borges was informed that he was being "promoted" from his position at the Miguel CanÃ© Library to a post as inspector of poultry and rabbits at the Buenos Aires municipal market. Upon demanding to know the reason, Borges was told, "Well, you were on the side of the Allies, what do you expect?"Williamson (2004) p292 The following day, Borges resigned from Government service in response to an insult he would never forget, or forgive. Peron's treatment of Borges became a cause cÃ©lÃ¨bre for the Argentine intelligentsia. The Argentine Society of Writers (SADE) held a formal dinner in his honour. At the dinner, a speech was read which Borges had written for the occasion. It said, "Dictatorships breed oppression, dictatorships breed servility, dictatorships breed cruelty; more loathsome still is the fact that they breed idiocy. Bellboys babbling orders, portraits of caudillos, prearranged cheers or insults, walls covered with names, unanimous ceremonies, mere discipline usurping the place of clear thinking... Fighting these sad monotonies is one of the duties of a writer. Need I remind readers of MartÃn Fierro or Don Segundo that individualism is an old Argentine virtue."Williamson (2004) p295 In the aftermath, Borges found himself much in demand as a lecturer and one of the intellectual leaders of the Argentine opposition. In 1951 he was asked by Anti-Peronist friends to run for president of SADE. Borges, then suffering from depression caused by a failed romance, reluctantly accepted. He later recalled that he would awake every morning and remember that Peron was President and feel deeply depressed and ashamed. Williamson (2004) p312 Peron's government had seized control of the Argentine mass media and regarded SADE with indifference. Borges later recalled, however, "Many distinguished men of letters did not dare set foot inside its doors."Williamson (2004) p313 Meanwhile, SADE became an increasing refuge for critics of the regime. SADE official Luisa Mercedes Levinson noted, "We would gather every week to tell the latest jokes about the ruling couple and even dared to sing the songs of the French Resistance, as well as 'La Marseillaise'." After Evita's death on July 26, 1952, Borges received a visit from two policemen, who ordered him to put up two portraits of the ruling couple on the premises of SADE. Borges told them he would do nothing of the sort and that it was a ridiculous demand. The policemen retorted that he would soon face the consequences.Williamson (2004) p320. The regime placed Borges under 24-hour surveillance and sent policemen to sit in on his lectures; in September it ordered SADE to be permanently closed down. Like much of the Argentine opposition to Peron, SADE had become marginalized due to persecution by the State and very few active members remained. According to Edwin Williamson, Borges had agreed to stand for the presidency of the SADE in order to fight for intellectual freedom, but he also wanted to avenge the humiliation he believed he had suffered in 1946, when the Peronists had proposed to make him an inspector of chickens. In his letter of 1950 to Attilio Rossi, he claimed that his infamous promotion had been a clever way the Peronists had found of damaging him and diminishing his reputation. The closure of the SADE meant that the Peronists had damaged him a second time, as was borne out by the visit of the Spanish writer JuliÃ¡n MarÃas, who arrived in Buenos Aires shortly after the closure of SADE. It was impossible for Borges, as president, to hold the usual reception for the distinguished visitor; instead, one of Borges' friends brought a lamb from his ranch, and they had it roasted at a tavern across the road from the SADE building on Calle Mexico. After dinner, a friendly janitor let them into the premises, and they showed MarÃas around by candlelight. That tiny group of writers leading a foreign guest through a dark building by the light of gutering candles was vivid proof of the extent to which the SADE had been diminished under the rule of Juan Peron.Williamson320-321. In 1955, after General Pedro Eugenio Aramburu's Anti-Peronist coup d'etat, or "RevoluciÃ³n Libertadora", forced Peron into exile, Borges was overjoyed. The new regime appointed Borges as the Director of the National Library. Jorge Luis Borges. GalerÃa de Directores, Biblioteca Nacional (Argentina)., Retrieved 23 December 2006. However, Peron's fall did not in any way alter Borges' animosity. In an interview with Richard Burgin in 1967, he said "Peron was a humbug, and he knew it, and everybody knew it. But Peron could be very cruel. I mean, he had people tortured, killed. And his wife was a common prostitute."Burgin (1969) p121 When Peron returned from exile in 1973 and regained the Presidency, Borges was enraged. In a 1975 interview for National Geographic, he said "Damn, the snobs are back in the saddle. If their posters and slogans again defile the city, I'll be glad I've lost my sight. Well, they can't humilate me as they did before my books sold well."National Geographic, March 1975. p303. After being accused of being unforgiving, Borges quipped, "I resented Peron's making Argentina look ridiculous to the world... as in 1951, when he announced control over thermonuclear fusion, which still hasn't happened anywhere but in the sun and the stars. For a time, Argentinians hesitated to wear bandaids for fear friends would ask, 'Did the Atomic Bomb go off in your hand?' A shame, because Argentina really has world class scientists." After Borges' death in 1986, the Peronist Partido Justicialista declined to send a delegate to the writer's memorial service in Buenos Aires. A spokesman for the Party stated that this was in reaction to, "certain declarations he had made about the country." Williamson (2004) p491 One Peronist declared that Borges had made statements about Evita Peron which were, "unacceptable." Later, at the City Council of Buenos Aires, a storm raged when Peronist politicians decided to give only conditional support for a condolence on the writer's death. Writing Wardrip-Fruin and Montfort argue that Borges "may have been the most important figure in Spanish-language literature since Cervantes. But whatever his particular literary rank, he was clearly of tremendous influence, writing intricate poems, short stories, and essays that instantiated concepts of dizzying power." Wardrip-Fruin, Noah, and Nick Montfort, ed. (2003). The New Media Reader. Cambridge: The MIT Press, p29. ISBN 0262232278 In addition to short stories for which he is most noted, Borges also wrote poetry, essays, screenplays, literary criticism, and edited numerous anthologies. His longest work of fiction was a 14 page story, "The Congress", first published in 1971. He was a prominent translator of English-, French- and German-language literature into Spanish, including works in Old English and Old Norse. His late-onset blindness strongly influenced his later writing. Borges wrote: "When I think of what I've lost, I ask, 'Who knows themselves better than the blind?' - for every thought becomes a tool." Borges, Jorge Luis. (1994) Siete Noches. Obras Completas, vol. III. Buenos Aires: EmecÃ© Paramount among his intellectual interests are elements of mythology, mathematics, theology, integrating these through literature, sometimes playfully, sometimes with great seriousness. Borges composed poetry throughout his life. As his eyesight waned (it came and went, with a struggle between advancing age and advances in eye surgery), he increasingly focused on writing poetry, since he could memorize an entire work in progress. His poems embrace the same wide range of interests as his fiction, along with issues that emerge in his critical works and translations, and from more personal musings. For example, his interest idealism is reflected in the fictional world of TlÃ¶n in "TlÃ¶n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius", in his essay "A New Refutation of Time", "On Exactitude in Science", and in his poem "Things". Similarly, a common thread runs through his story "The Circular Ruins" and his poem "El Golem" ("The Golem"). Borges was a notable translator. His first publication, for a Buenos Aires newspaper, was a translation of Oscar Wilde's story The Happy Prince into Spanish when he was nine. At the end of his life he produced a Spanish-language version of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda. He also translated (while simultaneously subtly transforming) the works of, among others, Edgar Allan Poe, Kafka, Hesse, Kipling, Faulkner,Gide, Whitman and Woolf. Notable translations also include work by Melville, Faulkner, Sir Thomas Browne, and G. K. Chesterton. Borges wrote and lectured extensively on the art of translation, holding that a translation may improve upon the original, may even be unfaithful to it, and that alternative and potentially contradictory renderings of the same work can be equally valid. Jorge Luis Borges, This Craft of Verse, Harvard University Press, 2000. Pages 57-76. Word Music and Translation, Lecture, Delivered February 28, 1968. Borges also employed the devices of literary forgery and the review of an imaginary work, both forms of modern pseudo-epigrapha. Hoaxes and forgeries Borges's best-known set of literary forgeries date from his early work as a translator and literary critic with a regular column in the Argentine magazine El Hogar. Along with publishing numerous legitimate translations, he also published original works, for example, in the style of Emanuel Swedenborg or '' One Thousand and One Nights, originally claiming them to be translations of works he had chanced upon. In another case, he added three short, falsely attributed pieces into his otherwise legitimate and carefully researched anthology ''El matrero. Several of these are gathered in the A Universal History of Infamy. At times he wrote reviews of nonexistent work, by some other person. The key example of this is "[[Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote|Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote]]", which imagines a twentieth-century Frenchman who tries to write Miguel de Cervantes' Don Quixote verbatim, not by having memorized Cervantes' work, but as an "original" narrative of his own invention. Initially the Frenchman tries to immerse himself in sixteenth-century Spain, but dismisses the method as too easy, instead trying to reach Don Quixote through his own experiences. He finally manages to (re)create "the ninth and thirty-eighth chapters of the first part of Don Quixote and a fragment of chapter twenty-two." Borges's "review" of the work of the fictional Menard uses tongue-in-cheek comparisons to explore the resonances which Don Quixote has picked up over the centuries since it was written. He discusses how much "richer" Menard's work is than that of Cervantes, even though the actual text is exactly the same. While Borges was the great popularizer of the review of an imaginary work, Borges developed the idea from Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus, a book-length review of a non-existent German transcendentalist work, and the biography of its equally non-existent author. In This Craft of Verse, Borges says that in 1916 in Geneva "I discovered, and was overwhelmed by, Thomas Carlyle. I read Sartor Resartus, and I can recall many of its pages; I know them by heart." Borges This Craft of Verse (p104) In the introduction to his first published volume of fiction, The Garden of Forking Paths, Borges remarks, "It is a laborious madness and an impoverishing one, the madness of composing vast books, setting out in five hundred pages an idea that can be perfectly related orally in five minutes. The better way to go about it is to pretend that those books already exist, and offer a summary, a commentary on them." He then cites both Sartor Resartus and Samuel Butler's The Fair Haven, remarking, however, that "those works suffer under the imperfection that they themselves are books, and not a whit less tautological than the others. A more reasonable, more inept, and more lazy man, I have chosen to write notes on imaginary books." Borges Collected Fictions, p67 Criticism of Borges' work Borges's change in style from regionalist criollismo to a more cosmopolitan style brought him much criticism from journals such as Contorno, a left-of-centre, Sartre-influenced Argentine publication founded by the ViÃ±as brothers, NoÃ© Jitrik, Adolfo Prieto, and other intellectuals. In the post-Peronist Argentina of the early 1960s, Contorno met with wide approval from the youth who challenged the authenticity of older writers such as Borges and questioned their legacy of experimentation. Magic realism and exploration of universal truths, they argued, had come at the cost of responsibility and seriousness in the face of society's problems.Katra, William H. (1988) Contorno: Literary Engagement in Post-PerÃ³nist Argentina. Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, pp. 56-57 The Contorno writers acknowledged Borges and Eduardo Mallea for being "doctors of technique" but argued that their work lacked substance due to their lack of interaction with the reality that they inhabited, an existentialist critique of their refusal to embrace existence and reality in their artwork. Sexuality With a few notable exceptions, women are almost entirely absent from the majority of Borges's fictional output.The Queer Use of Communal Women in Borges's "El muerto" and "La intrusa"], paper presented at XIX Latin American Studies Association (LASA) Congress held in Washington DC in September, 1995. There are, however, some instances in Borges's writings of romantic love, for example the story "Ulrikke" from The Book of Sand. The protagonist of the story "El muerto" also lusts after the "splendid, contemptuous, red-haired woman" of Azevedo Bandeira.Hurley, Andrew 1988) Jorge Luis Borges: Collected Fictions. New York: Penguin p197. and later "sleeps with the woman with shining hair".Hurley, Andrew 1988) Jorge Luis Borges: Collected Fictions. New York: Penguin p200 The plot of La Intrusa was based on a true story of two friends. Borges turned their fictional counterparts into brothers, excluding the possibility of a homosexual relationship. Nobel Prize omission Borges was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, something which continually distressed the writer.[http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n09/toib01_.html "Don't abandon me" TÃ³ibÃn, Colm'' London Review of Books 2006-05-11.] Retrieved 2009-04-19 He was one of several distinguished authors who never received the honour.Feldman, Burton (2000) The Nobel Prize: a History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige, Arcade Publishing p57 Borges commented "Not granting me the Nobel Prize has become a Scandinavian tradition; since I was born they have not been granting it to me." Some observers speculated that Borges did not receive the award because of his conservative political views; or more specifically, because he had accepted an honour from dictator Augusto Pinochet.[http://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/07/books/83nobel.html "Briton Wins the Nobel Literature Prize." James M. Markham. The New York Times 7 October 1983]. Accessed 2010-08-15Feldman, Burton (2000) The Nobel Prize: a History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige, Arcade Publishing p81 coin featuring Borges, 1999]] Fact, fantasy and non-linearity Many of Borges's most popular stories concern the nature of time ("The Secret Miracle"), infinity "(The Aleph"), mirrors ("TlÃ¶n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius") and Labyrinths ("The Two Kings and the Two Labyrinths", "The House of Asterion", The Immortal, "The Garden of Forking Paths"). Williamson writes, "His basic contention was that fiction did not depend on the illusion of reality; what mattered ultimately was an author's ability to generate 'poetic faith' in his reader." His stories often have fantastical themes, such as a library containing every possible 410-page text ("The Library of Babel"), a man who forgets nothing he experiences ("Funes, the Memorious"), an artifact through which the user can see everything in the universe ("The Aleph"), and a year of still time given to a man standing before a firing squad ("The Secret Miracle"). Borges also told realistic stories of South American life, of folk heroes, streetfighters, soldiers, gauchos, detectives, historical figures. He mixed the real and the fantastic: fact with fiction. His interest in compounding fantasy, philosophy, and the art of translation are evident in articles such as "The Translators of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights". In The Book of Imaginary Beings, a thoroughly (and obscurely) researched bestiary of mythical creatures, Borges wrote, "There is a kind of lazy pleasure in useless and out-of-the-way erudition." Borges, Luis Borges (1979) The Book of Imaginary Beings Penguin Books Australia p.11 ISBN 0525475389 Borges's interest in fantasy was shared by Adolfo Bioy Casares, with whom Borges coauthored several collections of tales between 1942 and 1967, often under different pseudonyms including H. Bustos Domecq. Often, especially early in his career, the mixture of fact and fantasy, crossed the line into the realm of hoax or literary forgery. His imitations of Swedenborg and others were originally passed off as translations, in his literary column in CrÃtica. "El TeÃ³logo" was originally published with the note "Lo anterior...es obra de Manuel Swedenborg, eminente ingeniero y hombre de ciencia, que durante 27 aÃ±os estuvo en comercio lÃºcido y familiar con el otro mundo." ("The preceding ... is the work of Emanuel Swedenborg, eminent engineer and man of science, who during 27 years was in lucid and familiar commerce with the other world.") BibliografÃa cronolÃ³gica de la obra de Jorge Luis Borges ("Chronological bibliography of the work of Jorge Luis Borges"), Borges Center, University of Iowa. Retrieved 7 November 2006. "The Garden of Forking Paths" (1941) presents the idea of forking paths through networks of time, none of which is the same, all of which are equal. Borges uses the recurring image of "a labyrinth that folds back upon itself in infinite regression" so we "become aware of all the possible choices we might make." Murray, Janet H. "Inventing the Medium" The New Media Reader. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003. The forking paths have branches to represent these choices that ultimately lead to different endings. Borges saw man's search for meaning in a seemingly infinite universe as fruitless and instead uses the maze as a riddle for time, not space. Borges also examined the themes of universal randomness and madness (The Lottery in Babylon) and (The Zahir). Due to the success of the "Forking Paths" story, the term "Borgesian" came to reflect a quality of narrative non-linearity. Non-linarity was key to the development of digital media. See Murray, Janet H. "Inventing the Medium" The New Media Reader. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003 Multiculturalism and Argentine literature ''MartÃn Fierro'' and Argentine tradition Along with other young Argentine writers of his generation, Borges initially rallied around the fictional character of MartÃn Fierro. MartÃn Fierro, a poem by JosÃ© HernÃ¡ndez, was a dominant work of 19th century Argentine literature. Its eponymous hero became a symbol of Argentine sensibility, untied from European values - a gaucho, free, poor, pampas-dwelling. The character Fierro is illegally drafted to serve at a border fort to defend against the Indians but ultimately deserts to become a gaucho matrero, the Argentine equivalent of a North American western outlaw. Borges contributed keenly to the avant garde MartÃn Fierro magazine in the early 1920s. As Borges matured, he came to a more nuanced attitude toward the HernÃ¡ndez poem. In his book of essays on the poem, Borges separates his admiration for the aesthetic virtues of the work from his mixed opinion of the moral virtues of its protagonist.Borges and Guerrero (1953) El "MartÃn Fierro ISBN 8420619337 In his essay "The Argentine Writer and Tradition" (1951), Borges celebrates how HernÃ¡ndez expresses the Argentine character. In a key scene in the poem, MartÃn Fierro and El Moreno compete by improvising songs on universal themes such as time, night, and the sea, reflecting the real-world gaucho tradition of payadas, improvised musical dialogues on philosophical themes. Gabriel Waisman, Sergio (2005) Borges and Translation: The Irreverence of the Periphery Bucknell University Press pp126-9 ISBN 0838755925Borges, Jorge Luis and Lanuza, Eduardo GonzÃ¡lez (1961) "The Argentine writer and tradition" Latin American and European Literary Society Borges points out that, HernÃ¡ndez evidently knew the difference between actual gaucho tradition of composing poetry, versus the "gauchesque" fashion among Buenos Aires literati. In his works he refutes the arch-nationalist interpreters of the poem, and disdains others as critic Eleuterio Tiscornia, for their Europeanising approach. Borges denies that Argentine literature should distinguish itself by limiting itself to "local colour", which he equates with cultural nationalism. Racine and Shakespeare's work, he says, looked beyond their countries' borders. Neither, he argues, need the literature be bound to the heritage of old world Spanish or European tradition. Nor should it define itself by the conscious rejection of its colonial past. He asserts that Argentine writers need to be free to define Argentine literature anew, writing about Argentina and the world from the point of view of those who have inherited the whole of world literature. Williamson says "Borges's main argument is that the very fact of writing from the margins provides Argentine writers with a special opportunity to innovate without being bound to the canons of the centre, ... at once a part of and apart from the centre which gives them much potential freedom". Argentine culture Borges focused on universal themes, but also composed a substantial body of literature on themes from Argentine folklore and history. Borges's first book, the poetry collection Fervor de Buenos Aires (Passion for Buenos Aires), appeared in 1923. Borges's writings on things Argentine, include Argentine culture ("History of the Tango"; "Inscriptions on Horse Wagons"), folklore ("Juan MuraÃ±a", "Night of the Gifts"), literature ("The Argentine Writer and Tradition", "Almafuerte"; "Evaristo Carriego") and national concerns ("Celebration of The Monster", "Hurry, Hurry", "The Mountebank", "Pedro Salvadores"). Ultra-nationalists, however, continued to question his Argentine identity. Borges's interest in Argentine themes reflects, in part, the inspiration of his family tree. Borges had an English paternal grandmother who, around 1870, married the criollo Francisco Borges, a man with a military command and a historic role in the civil wars in what is now Argentina and Uruguay. Spurred by pride in his family's heritage, Borges often used those civil wars as settings in fiction and quasi-fiction (for example, "The Life of Tadeo Isidoro Cruz," "The Dead Man," "Avelino Arredondo") as well as poetry ("General Quiroga Rides to His Death in a Carriage"). Borges's maternal great-grandfather, Manuel Isidoro SuÃ¡rez , was another military hero, whom Borges immortalized in the poem "A Page to Commemorate Colonel SuÃ¡rez, Victor at JunÃn." The city of Coronel SuÃ¡rez in the south of Buenos Aires Province is named after him. His non-fiction explores many of the themes found in his fiction. Essays such as "The History of the Tango" or his writings on the epic poem MartÃn Fierro explore Argentine themes, such as the identity of the Argentine people and of various Argentine subcultures. The varying genealogies of characters, settings, and themes in his stories, such as "La muerte y la brÃºjula", used Argentine models without pandering to his readers or framing Argentine culture as 'exotic'. In his essay "El escritor argentino y la tradiciÃ³n", Borges notes that the very absence of camels in the Qur'an was proof enough that it was an Arabian work. He suggested that only someone trying to write an "Arab" work would purposefully include a camel. Takolander, Maria (2007) Catching butterflies: bringing magical realism to ground Peter Lang Pub Inc pp.55-60 ISBN 3039111930 He uses this example to illustrate how his dialogue with universal existential concerns was just as Argentine as writing about gauchos and tangos. Multiculturalism Borges's work maintained a perspective that reflected a multi-ethnic Argentina, exposure from an early age to his father's substantial collection of world literature, and lifelong travel experience. At the time of Argentine independence in 1816, the population was predominantly criollo (of Spanish ancestry). The Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816 led to waves of immigration from Europe and Asia and in the following decades and the Argentine national identity diversified. Borges therefore was writing in a heavily multicultural and strongly European literary context, and worked immersed in Spanish, English, French, German, Italian, Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse literature. He also read translations of Near Eastern and Far Eastern works. Borges's writing is also informed by scholarship of Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism, including prominent religious figures, heretics, and mystics. Religion and heresy are explored in such stories as "Averroes's Search", "The Writing of the God", "The Theologians" and "Three Versions of Judas". The curious inversion of mainstream Christian concepts of redemption in the latter story is characteristic of Borges's approach to theology in his literature. In describing himself, he said, "I am not sure that I exist, actually. I am all the writers that I have read, all the people that I have met, all the women that I have loved; all the cities that I have visited, all my ancestors." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/jun/10/jorgeluisborges Guardian profile. "Jorge Luis Borges" 22 July 2008]. Accessed 2010-08-15 As a young man, he visited the frontier ''pampas'' where the boundaries of Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil blurred. He lived and studied in Switzerland and Spain as a young student. As Borges matured, he traveled through Argentina as a lecturer and, internationally, as a visiting professor; he continued to tour the world as he grew older, finally settling in Geneva where he had spent some of his youth. Drawing on the influence of many times and places, Borges's work belittled nationalism and racism. Portraits of diverse coexisting cultures characteristic of Argentina are especially pronounced in the book Six Problems for Don Isidoro Parodi (co-authored with Adolfo Bioy Casares) and the story "Death and the Compass", which may or may not be set in Buenos Aires. Borges wrote that he considered Mexican essayist Alfonso Reyes "the best prose-writer in the Spanish language of any time."Borges Siete Noches, p156 Influences Modernism Borges lived through most of the 20th century, and was rooted in the Modernism pre-dominant in its early years. He was especially influenced by Symbolism. Like contemporary novelists Vladimir Nabokov and the older James Joyce, he combined an interest in his native culture with broader perspectives. He also shared their multilingualism and their inventiveness with language. However, while Nabokov and Joyce tended toward progressively larger works as they grew older, Borges remained a miniaturist. Borges's work progressed away from what he referred to as "the baroque", while Joyce's and Nabokov's moved towards it: his later style is far more transparent and naturalistic than his earlier works. Borges represented the humanist view of media that stressed the social aspect of art driven by emotion. If art represented the tool, then Borges was more interested in how the tool could be used to relate to people. Existentialism saw its apogee during the years of Borges's greatest artistic production. It has been argued that his choice of topics largely ignored existentialism's central tenets. Critic Paul de Man notes, "Whatever Borges's existential anxieties may be, they have little in common with Sartre's robustly prosaic view of literature, with the earnestness of Camus' moralism, or with the weighty profundity of German existential thought. Rather, they are the consistent expansion of a purely poetic consciousness to its furthest limits."de Man, Paul. "A Modern Master", Jorge Luis Borges, Ed. Harold Bloom, New York: Chelsea House Pub., 1986. p.22. Political influences As a political conservative, Borges "was repulsed by Marxism in theory and practice. Abhorring sentimentality, he rejected the politics and poetics of cultural identity that held sway in Latin America for so long." [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/08/31/reviews/970831.31gonz01.html New york Times Article. Paid Subscription only] As a universalist, his interest in world literature reflected an attitude that was also incongruent with the PerÃ³nist Populist nationalism. That government's confiscation of Borges's job at the Miguel CanÃ© Library fueled his skepticism of government. He labeled himself a Spencerian anarchist, following his father. In 1934, extreme Argentine nationalists, sympathetic to the growing Nazi ideology of the time, asserted Borges was secretly Jewish, and by implication, not a full Argentine. Borges responded with the essay "Yo JudÃo" ("I, a Jew"), a reference to the old "Yo, Argentino" ("I, an Argentine"), a phrase used during nationalistic beatings of Argentine Jews to make it clear to approaching attackers that one was a "true" Argentine, and not a Jew. De Costa, RenÃ© (2000) Humor in Borges (Humor in Life & Letters). Wayne State University Press p49 ISBN 0814328881 In the essay he notes, that he would be proud to be a Jew, with a backhanded reminder that any "pure" Castilian might be likely to have Jewish ancestry from a millennium ago. Mathematics The essay collection Borges y La Matematica (Borges and Mathematics, 2003) by Argentine mathematician and writer Guillermo Martinez, outlines how Borges used concepts from mathematics in his work. MartÃnez states that Borges had, for example, at least a superficial knowledge of set theory, which he handles with elegance in stories such as "The Book of Sand".Martinez, Guillermo (2003) Borges y La Matematica (Spanish Edition) Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires ISBN 9502312961 Other books such as The Unimaginable Mathematics of Borges' Library of Babel by William Goldbloom Bloch (2008) and Unthinking Thinking: Jorge Luis Borges, Mathematics, and the New Physics by Floyd Merrell (1991) also explore this relationship. Footnotes Publications *''Dreamtigers'' See also * Poets of other languages References * * * * * * * * * * * *Burgin, Richard (1969) Conversations with Jorge Luis Borges. Holt Rhinehart Winston * * * * * * * * * *Manovich, Lev, New Media from Borges to HTML, 2003 * * * Murray, Janet H., Inventing the Medium, 2003 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Documentaries * * Notes External links ;Poems * Jorge Luis Borges at the Poetry Foundation *English translations of Borges short stories and poems *Jorge Luis Borges 8 poems at Poems and Pickaxes * Jorge Luis Borges at PoemHunter (15 poems) ;Audio / video *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20070104.shtml BBC Radio 4: In Our Time. Historical Discussion on Borges life and work.] ;About * Jorge Luis Borges at NNDB. *Slate.com revisionist essay by Clive James "Borges' Bad Politics" *[http://www.susanamedina.net/modules/articles/article.php?id=28 An essay from Borgesland by Susana Medina "Hallucinating Spaces"] * *02/14/08 Interview with Borges at the University of Buenos Aires from Habitus: A Diaspora Journal (in English). *Jorge Luis Borges at The Modern Word ;Etc. * The Garden of Forking Paths. *Borges Center, University of Pittsburgh. Multiple resources and archive. Publishes the journal Variaciones Borges. *The Friends of Jorge Luis Borges Worldwide Society & Associates |PLACE OF BIRTH=Buenos Aires, Argentina |DATE OF DEATH= |PLACE OF DEATH=Geneva, Switzerland }} Category:1899 births Category:1986 deaths Category:People from Buenos Aires Category:Argentine anti-fascists Category:Argentine anti-communists Category:Argentine people of English descent Category:Argentine essayists Category:Argentine librarians Category:Argentine poets Category:Argentine science fiction writers Category:Argentine short story writers Category:Argentine translators Category:Argentine writers Category:Argentine screenwriters Category:Harvard University people Category:Blind people Category:Latin American people of British descent Category:Edgar Award winners Category:Hyperreality theorists Category:Jorge Luis Borges Category:LÃ©gion d'honneur recipients Category:Literary collaborators Category:Deaths from liver cancer Category:Postmodern literature Category:Postmodernists Category:Premio Cervantes winners Category:Argentine people of Portuguese descent Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:Argentine people of Spanish descent Category:Argentine people of Uruguayan descent Category:Cancer deaths in Switzerland Category:Prix mondial Cino Del Duca winners Category:20th-century poets Category:Poets Category:Sonneteers Category:Spanish-language poets